What Is a Histogram and How Is One Used

A histogram is a type of graph that has wide applications in statistics. Histograms provide a visual interpretation of numerical data by indicating the number of data points that lie within a range of values.  These ranges of values are called classes or bins. The frequency of the data that falls in each class is depicted by the use of a bar.  The higher that the bar is, the greater the frequency of data values in that bin. Histograms vs. Bar Graphs At first glance, histograms look very similar to bar graphs. Both graphs employ vertical bars to represent data. The height of a bar corresponds to the relative frequency of the amount of data in the class. The higher the bar, the higher the frequency of the data. The lower the bar, the lower the frequency of data. But looks can be deceiving. It is here that the similarities end between the two kinds of graphs. The reason that these kinds of graphs are different has to do with the level of measurement of the data. On one hand, bar graphs are used for data at the nominal level of measurement. Bar graphs measure the frequency of categorical data, and the classes for a bar graph are these categories. On the other hand, histograms are used for data that is at least at the ordinal level of measurement. The classes for a histogram are ranges of values. Another key difference between bar graphs and histograms has to do with the ordering of the bars. In a bar graph, it is common practice to rearrange the bars in order of decreasing height. However, the bars in a histogram cannot be rearranged. They must be displayed in the order that the classes occur. Example of a Histogram The diagram above shows us a histogram. Suppose that four coins are flipped and the results are recorded. The use of the appropriate binomial distribution table or straightforward calculations with the binomial formula shows the probability that no heads are showing is 1/16, the probability that one head is showing is 4/16. The probability of two heads is 6/16. The probability of three heads is 4/16. The probability of four heads is 1/16. We construct a total of five classes, each of width one. These classes correspond to the number of heads possible: zero, one, two, three or four. Above each class, we draw a vertical bar or rectangle. The heights of these bars correspond to the probabilities mentioned for our probability experiment of flipping four coins and counting the heads. Histograms and Probabilities The above example not only demonstrates the construction of a histogram, but it also shows that discrete probability distributions can be represented with a histogram. Indeed, and discrete probability distribution can be represented by a histogram. To construct a histogram that represents a probability distribution, we begin by selecting the classes. These should be the outcomes of a probability experiment. The width of each of these classes should be one unit. The heights of the bars of the histogram are the probabilities for each of the outcomes. With a histogram constructed in such a way, the areas of the bars are also probabilities. Since this sort of histogram gives us probabilities, it is subject to a couple of conditions. One stipulation is that only nonnegative numbers can be used for the scale that gives us the height of a given bar of the histogram. A second condition is that since the probability is equal to the area, all of the areas of the bars must add up to a total of one, equivalent to 100%. Histograms and Other Applications The bars in a histogram do not need to be probabilities. Histograms are helpful in areas other than probability. Anytime that we wish to compare the frequency of occurrence of quantitative data a histogram can be used to depict our data set.

Saudi Arabian And Mexican Health Care Delivery Systems

Health Care Access: An Analysis of Saudi Arabian and Mexican Health Care Delivery Systems Access to equal health care is essential for a country to thrive and flourish. Equal access to health care means that all citizens receive the same health care services regardless of race, religion, gender, and socioeconomic status. Unfortunately, health care disparities and unequal access to care is often what many cultures experience. This paper will compare and contrast two very different societies, Saudi Arabia and Mexico. The comparison will analyze health care delivery systems, the accessibility to health care, and the health status of the citizens of Saudi Arabia and Mexico. The analysis will include methods employed by the two countries to improve accessibility and therefore improving quality of health care for their citizens. Saudi Arabian Health Care Delivery System Prior to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia s established reign, health care was sought out by local traditional healers. Saud i Arabia became a kingdom in 1932 and one of the first decrees set by King Abdulaziz was to establish a public health department in Mecca. The public health departments objectives were to promote and monitor free health care for Saudi citizens as well as pilgrims from other Muslim countries who came to Mecca for the Hajj journey made by all followers of Islam. The public health department implemented many hospitals and dispensaries; however, there was not enough funding to sustain andShow MoreRelatedInternational Management67196 Words   |  269 Pages10020. Copyright  © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions  © 2009, 2006, and 2003. 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Business Law and Ethics Physicians and Professio Essay Example For Students

Business Law and Ethics : Physicians and Professio Essay nal Secrecy Introduction Our law enforcement officials have a duty to protect citizens as well as discourage crimes from taking place. Our health care officials also have a duty to provide the best care possible to those who need it. Often enough, there have been many cases where both parties have come in contrast with each other on different levels of professionalism. The ultimate debate arises when doctors and law enforcement take into account the respect and privacy of patients. One of the issues that will be discussed in the paper focuses on the importance of doctors having to report gunshot wounds to the police. Many issues of ethics and morality come into play when judging which party is in favor. In our opinion, we believe that physicians should report patients that come in with gunshot wounds for reasons of discouraging criminal acts, protecting our society, and preventing future violence from taking place. This paper will explore the many moral, ethical and legal responsibilities of a physician, and analyze why it is important for them to report gunshot wounds to the police. Contrary to the Code of Ethics of Physicians and the Medical Act, we believe there is a pressing issue for public concern that is being strongly overlooked in this matter. We will explore the areas of human rights, professional secrecy, civil responsibilities, as well as patient consent in order to justify our claim. The Law Article 9 of The Charter of Human Rights and Freedom states that, No person bound to professional secrecy should disclose confidential information and that the tribunal will ensure professional secrecy is respected. We strongly believe this statement should not apply to gunshot wounds because it depicts that the law would only be protecting one person over society as a whole. A gunshot wound should not be bound by professional secrecy since; even professionals can determine a gunshot wound and it is not revealing a patients confidential information other than his condition. When a gun has been discharged the government has an obligation to protect society. In essence, the most important issues to consider in disclosure of confidential information are that the police have a specific role as well in protecting the well being of society. The police are responsible for assessing the risk posed by members of the public who are armed. Therefore, they have a need to consider the risk of further harm to those in the surrounding area. With the upscale growth of firearm violence throughout the country, police say hospitals have become safe havens for people who break the law, but some doctors say patient confidentiality trumps the need to report gunshot wounds. Most physicians recognize the narrow public health and safety obligations to report a patients communicable diseases, gunshot wounds, signs of child abuse, or serious violent intentionssocially motivated exceptions to traditional pledges of confidentiality. As these social issues immerge, we believe it is best for society to inform the authorities of any crime. Many argue that a patient with a gunshot wound may himself have been part of gunfire and would therefore be discouraged from obtaining medical help if physicians were to report the wound. However, shouldnt a law protect society over one individual? When a patient is brought to the hospital for a gunshot wound it is crucial to take into account that the criminal is perhaps still at large and may harm someone else; that is, if the law enforcement is not informed. Forty-five American states have some form of law providing for mandatory reporting of gunshot or other wounds. The Code of Medical Ethics states that the information disclosed to a physician during the course of the patient-physician relationship is confidential to the utmost degree, however they have permitted disclosures. Furthermore, article 20.1 of the Professional Code of Physicians, argues, A physician, in order to maintain professional secrecy, must keep confidential the information obtained in the practice of his profession. Again, we understand the importance of non disclosure of important information relevant to any patients privacy, however when their condition becomes a matter of public order it is important that those in the public should be protected against any harm that might be .